BREAKING CHAINS - AT LAW- MINISTRY

  "To What Extent Or In What Way Do Blacks Figure In The Origin Of Man"

Cheikh Anta Diop

Cheikh Anta Diop was a great Senegalese historian, anthropologist, philosopher, physicist and politician. He should be considered as one of the greatest scientists after Darwin, as he demonstrated that Africa was the cradle of humanity; that everything started in Africa, and that Egypt and modern day Africans descended from the same ancestors, in other words, were the same people. Before Cheikh Anta Diop, the world, and Africans in particular, had been taught that Africa was nothing, and that Egypt and Egyptians were not Africans… that the great Egyptian civilization which gave so much to the world, could not have come from the dark brown Africans.

Europeans refused to admit that although in Africa, Egyptians could be Africans i.e. Black, or rather believed that Blacks were so backwards that their ancestors could not have possibly made the great pyramids of Giza or the great sphinx. Well Cheikh Anta Diop proved them all wrong!

 Dr. Cheikh Anta Diop is considered to be the most respected scholar of Kemet. An Egyptologist and linguist, he had the revolutionary idea to use the scientific method to disprove the many myths surrounding ancient Kemet. He developed a way to test the levels of melanin in Egyptian mummies, which revealed that the ancient Egyptians were, indeed, Africans. He also argued that the Egyptian language was related to African dialects and can be connected to the Wolof language of today. 

By far, the most important theory that he sought to prove was that human life began in Africa. Diop argued that the first civilizations emerged in the Nile Basin on the eastern coast of Africa. It is from this basin that African people fanned out across the continent and onto other lands around the 6th century BC. There exist two theories of human origin: mono-genetic and poly-genetic. The mono-genetic view states that there is one source for mankind; man was born in one place and became different due to the climatic conditions to which he was exposed. 

The poly-genetic opinion claims that man has several locations of origin, which would explain the physiological dif-ferences between the races. Followers of this theory believe that man was born in Africa, Europe, and Asia and there was no evolutionary or climatic development. Diop states that there are two reasons why this theory is faulty. He says that nature never strikes twice in its evolution; she doesn't create the same being twice. In addition, com-plete fossils have been found on the African continents, which proves that life began there. No such fossils have been found anywhere else in the world.

In 1912, a British geologist attempted to prove that life had begun in England by piecing together a fake fossil suppos-edly found on British soil. The fabricated skull was later found to have been a fake by an English anthropologist in the 1950's.The fabricated skull was later found to have been a fake by an English anthropologist in the 1950's. It was determined to have been constructed using the mandible and canine teeth of a monkey.

Diop reinforces his belief in the mono-genetic theory by saying "If Africans never left Africa, the rest of the world would be an un-peopled desert."

To What Extent Or In What Way Does The  Black Man Figure In The Origin Of Man

 We are able to say scientifically with certainty today that mankind was born in Africa on the latitude moreless of Kenya, in that area that comprises Kenya, Ethiopia and Tanzania, and going on north, south axis, south all the way to South Africa. So its clear that any humanity that had its birth in that region could not have survived in a equatorial region without pigmentation. Nature doesn't do anything by chance, and its for that reason, that humanity, mankind that was born in a subequatorial region was given melanin to protect its skin, and it is for that reason that it is clear, it is certain that the first man had to be a black man. It is only after that race left Africa to people other parts of the world that had different climatic phenomenon that, that man changed and took on different characteristics and had a different look. Nature created six specimens of man before we got to man as we know him today. According to the scientific information that we have now.

 It appears that the first three of these species which is not necessary to name, never acquired or arrived at the potential for exporting or leaving their own area. They never had the potential to expand and leave Africa, three others did leave Africa, the fourth and the fifth of these species dis- appeared and what remains is man as we know him that six species.The Grimaldi man, as he is called in prehistoric time, left Africa 40,000 years ago and went to Europe. Between 40,000-20,000 years ago the Grimaldi man left Africa to go to Europe, at a time which is called the final or the last glaciation. The climate in Europe was extremely cold, it was much colder than it is now and during this period of some 20,000 years he under went  the adaptation of what we know as white men. It is very clear to all the scientist involved in this field,  even if they are only able to say it within themselves and unable to say it publicly that the man we know conventionally to be a white  man evolved from a black man over a period of some twenty thousand years of adaptation to a different climate. And if we are to say with serenity resting totally on scientific data, that is the conclusion that we must come to.

If the Grimaldi had never left Africa to people other parts of the world, and if those people in other parts of the world in different climates, had not through the process of adaptation become what they are in various regions of the world, all man would be homo genius, and all man would be black. If that man had not left Africa the rest of the world would have remained a desert and would never had been peopled. And so to answer precisely the question "To What Extent Or In What Way Does The Black Man Figure In The Origin Of Man" the answer is the first man was a black man, and it was he who gave birth to other races of the world.

 Monogenetic VS Polygenetic

Before humans anthropolgy had evolved to the point of where it is today, there were two theories that kept confronting one another. There was the theory that man was born in one place and that he became different as he peopled other parts of the world, This is called the Monogenetic Theory, that is that there is one source for mankind. The second theory is that of the Polygenetic Africa, Theory which contends that man was born in Africa, in Europe and also in Asia. In other words that there were several locations in the world where man finds his origin. The Polygenetic Theory made a certain amount of sense, not that it made good sense, but it made a certain amount of sense, it would explain that there are different people, in different parts of the world with different characteristics.

But under closer scrutiny there were two things that made this theory fall apart more or less. The first is that nature never strikes twice in its evolution, it doesn't ever hit the same place two times. Nature doesn't create twice the same being. In the animal kingdom you can see that through out the  evolution of animals, a being was created and it either disappeared or changed some what or a new being completely was created, but never the same being twice, and to remain strictly scientific, it doesn't make common sense to say that man was created twice.

It is in the Kenya region that we find all of the most ancient evolutionary information. And it is for this reason that scientist are now able to say wyith certainty that they know, that this is the case, that man could only have been created one time. All fossils that have been found outside of Africa, have been found under close analysis to be much more recent than those found in Africa. And no other continent in the world has the complete series of fossils indicating the six specimens of man. The three specimens which represent the very beginning of mankind, can not be found on no other continent in world, not in Europe, not in Asia, and of course can not be found in America, they never left Africa. The complete set remains in Africa. The accomodation then of the best information now makes it very clear that man had its origin in Africa.

The only specimen that appears in America is that of the Homo Sapien Sapien. America was  peopled through the Bering Straits, at the end of the final glaciation, and it is for that reason that we find Homo Sapien Sapien in America. In Asia we have Homo Erectus, the Nieanderthaler, and Homo Sapien. In Europe we have the same, Homo Erectus, Nieanderthaler, and Homo Sapien.

Some of them left by the Seuz Canal to go into Asia and Eastern Europe, and some went by the Straits of Gibrator up into the north and into Europe.

ThePolycentric Theory makes the to establish a higher arche of races, and to indicate that some races are inferior to others. If the three races had've had different origins, then one could say that they had different intellectual capacities, having had a different intellectual history. It is the Mongenetic Theory that supports the notion that because our origin is the same we have the same intellectual capacities. No race is superior to any other. All races have the same intellectual capacities.

Diop and the Myth of the Semitic Half-Breeds

Excerpt from Dr Wesley Muhammad's upcoming Book

5. Diop and the Myth of the Semitic Half-Breeds             In scholarly and lay Afrocentric circles it is popularly believed that Semites are by definition half (semi)-breeds, Black and White crossbreeds. This perspective was argued forcefully, for example, by historian, scientist, and scholar par excellence Cheikh Anta Diop who, due to his impeccable academic credentials, gave this perspective an air of unassailability. This is, however, one of the few areas of Diop’s tremendous scholarly output that must be updated and corrected in the light of new data.             According to Diop, Anthropologically and culturally speaking, the Semitic world was born during protohistoric times from the mixture of white-skinned and black-skinned people in Western Asia.[1] He further argues that: The formation of the Semitic branch occurred between the fifth and fourth millennium (BCE). This was a genuine interbreeding between White (non-Mongoloid Cro-Magnon) and Black at the beginning of the historical era…the Negro type…inhabited the Arabian Peninsula in Neolithic times. This type...progressively crossbred with White elements [who] came from the northeast to give rise finally to the Arabian type.[2] Not until the Sabean era, 1000 BC, was this crossbreeding completed in the south.[3] Thus, Semites in general and Arabs in particular are by definition half-breeds: All Semites (Arabs and Jews)…are mixed breeds of Blacks and Whites[4]; the Arab race cannot be conceived as anything but a mixture of Blacks and Whites[5]; the entire Arab people, including the Prophet, are mixed with Negro blood.[6] Diop’s ethno-historical reconstruction of Arabia, Arabs, and Semites is problematic on a number ofa priori and a posteriori counts. First, his perspective is a bit incoherent and difficult to follow. Thus, in his magnum opus, Civilization and Barbarism, Diop affirms that “The formation of the Semitic branch occurred between the fifth and fourth millennium” (54). Yet, on page 23, Diop states that in the fifth millennium “Semites do not yet exists” and that the first appearance of Semites was 2,400 BCE with the Semitic Akkadians. On the other hand, Diop suggests that it was in fact “the Jewish people,” not the Akkadians, who were “the first branch called Semites.”[7] Among the evidence he cites for the latter claim is a XIIth Dynasty Egyptian depiction of White ‘Hebrews’ and an 11th century CE Byzantine image of a white Abraham.[8]  Diop further describes the Semites as a brachycephalic (round-headed) yellow-skinned race and says: “Semites (Akkadians, Arabs, Jews) 5,000 years ago.”[9] It is thus not at all clear whether the Akkadians, who appear in history in the fifth millennium, or Jews who appear much later, are the first Semites, and it is not clear whether the Semites go back to the fifth millennium, the third millennium or the second millennium (the time of Araham).   Regarding Arabs in particular, Diop noted: I have demonstrated in my earlier books all the biological and cultural kinship between Arabs and Black Africans, a kinship so old that it goes back to the fifth millennium B.C. and the beginning of the fourth with the birth of the Semitic world.[10]       Diop argues, correctly, that the original population of Arabia was a Negro/Kushite type,[11] and that in fact, “prior to the eighteenth century B.C., only Negros (Kushites, in official terminology) were found in the region of Arabia. Infiltrations before the second millennium were relatively insignificant.”[12] In the eighteenth century B.C. a group of wild, barbaric white hordes (“Jectanides”) entered the Peninsula from the northeast and destroyed the early Arabian Kushite empire. Soon, however, the indigenous Kushites regained political and cultural control, and these early Whites were absorbed culturally by the Kushites. These defeated Whites and subsequent half-breeds who now share the language and customs of the Arabian Kushites are, we are given to believe, ‘the Arab race’ and ‘Semites’.[13]  Thus, …it is important to change our notions about the Semite. Whether in Mesopotamia, Phoenicia, or Arabia, the Semite, insofar as he is discernible objectively, appears as the product of Negro-White mixture.    5.1. Semitism an African Phenomenon A review of the current data forces us to admit that Diop’s conclusions regarding the Semites in general and the Akkadians and Arabs in particular are unsustainable. The Semites, as we saw above, were no Asian half-breeds, but indigenous Africans who, having likely originated in Middle Africa and separating from its parent Afro-asiatic stock, descended the Nile and crossed over into Afrabia. Ehret and Marniche both make the point: The early Semites were just a few Africans arriving (in the Levant) to find a lot of other people already in the area.[14]  the indigenous or ‘black’ tribes of Arabia were those who in ancient times migrated from Africa…and were the earliest purveyors and dispersers of the Semitic dialects.[15] How old are the Semites? It is hard to say. Proto-Semitic’s close language contacts with Libyco-Berber and with Cushitic suggested to Edward Lipiński that the Proto-Semites were still dwelling in Africa in the fifth millennium and passed through the Nile delta from West to East, reaching Western Asia (Afrabia) in the third millennium.[16]  del Olmo Lete seems to agree, placing the Proto Semitic divergence from the parent stock in the Chalcolithic period (5,300-1,700 BCE) and their arrival in the Levant around the fourth millennium.[17] On the other hand, Russian linguist Igor Diakonoff made a strong case for the earliest Semitic society being that represented by the Jericho culture of eighth-seventh millennium Palestine.[18] These conclusions are not necessarily mutually exclusive, as it is known that more than one wave of Semites likely branched out from its Middle African homeland at different time periods.             The peoples whom the early African Semites encountered in the Levant and likely mingled with were themselves Africoid peoples: the Mushabians and the Natufians.[19] The oldest modernhomo sapien skull discovered in that area, the Qafzeh 9 skull discovered in 1969 in a cave in Israel and dated 100, 000 years old, is that of an African woman (Figure 9).[20] Thus, no Black-White Semitic mulattos are anywhere on the scene, as the Neolithic “Europeans” were themselves non-European and indeed Africoid.  It is no surprise that all modern European groups, ranging all the way from Scandinavia to eastern Europe and throughout the Mediterranean to the Middle East, show that they are closely related to each other. The surprise is that the Neolithic peoples of Europe and their Bronze Age successors are not closely related to the modern inhabitants…It is a further surprise that the Epipalaeolithic Natufian of Israel from which the Neolithic realm was assumed to arise has a clear link with sub-Saharan Africa.[21] Qafzeh 9 Skull, reconstructed by facial reconstruction expert Richard Neave of Manchester, England from cast provided by the Natural History Museum of London.  5.2.            The Akkadians Judging from the physical and textual remains, pre-historic and early historic Mesopotamia consisted of three ethnic groups: A ‘Sumerian’ group inhabiting the south whose language-relationships are still a matter of conjecture; a Semitic-speaking group in the North –Central area, an area called Akkad; a small minority of uncertain origin diffused throughout. These latter may be related to the groups north and east of Akkad from the Zargos Mountains, a people “fair-haired and speaking a ‘Caucasian’ tongue, a hill-people akin to the Guti.”[22]   The Akkadians of the north give us our oldest textual evidence of a Semitic language. Akkadian personal names appear in Sumerian texts dated to about 2700 - 2600 BCE and connected Akkadian texts appear c. 2350. This textual evidence should not however be taken to suggest that Semites only then appeared on the Mesopotamian plain. Semites – either Akkadians or a Semitic language group that had settled before them - may very well have contributed to the urbanization that took place at the end of the fourth millennium. The Sumerian king list places the first dynasty of Kish, together with a series of kings bearing Akkadian names, immediately after the Flood.[23] It was once thought that Sumer in the south and Akkad in the north “stood in sharp contrast,” “distinguished by the race and language of those who lived in them.”[24]  We know better today. As Georges Roux notes: it must be pointed out that not a single Sumerian text refers to the Akkadians as enemies, invaders or nomads…it appears clearly that the Akkadians practiced agriculture, lived in villages and towns and shared the way of life, the religion and culture of their Sumerian neighbors. So far as we know at the present time, the only obvious difference between Akkadians and the Sumerians is a linguistic one; in all other respects these two ethnic groups are indistinguishable.[25]     The physical remains confirm this near indistinguishability of the Sumerians and Akkadians. Excavations conducted at the beginning of the 20th century in al-‘Ubaid (c. 4000 BCE) and Ur (c.1900-1700 BCE) in the south and Kish (c. 2900-2800 BCE) in the north produced human remains of the two main ethnic groups inhabiting the area. The finds from al-‘Ubaid represent the remains of the country’s earlier Sumerian inhabitants, and those in Ur Akkadians, while in Kish a mix of both groups, Sumerians and Akkadians, is represented. At Kish, evidence of the penetration of a third ethic group into North Mesopotamia is present.             Sir Arthur Keith of the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, England, reported on the al-‘Ubaid and Ur remains.[26]  Both were dolichocephalic, with long and narrow heads. The Ur remains were of a people with a more narrow head than the al-‘Ubaidians, and this suggested to Keith that by the second millennium a new people had entered the area. But, Keith emphasizes, the people of al-‘Ubaid and Ur are but variations of a singular physical type with a common racial origin, “a cousin people.”[27] Indeed, the cranial types are nearly indistinguishable. The human remains of Kish confirm the same.             The remains reported on by L.H. Dudley and D. Talbot Rice in 1931 for the Field Museum and Oxford Expedition were excavated in a fourth millennium Sumerian palace in Eastern Kish used as a cemetery by a Semitic (Akkadian) dynasty of the third millennium.[28] Both Sumerians and Akkadians were buried there, and it is thus no surprise that both physical types found by Keith in al-‘Ubaid and Ur were found together among the Kish remains. Buxton and Rice offer a revealing description of these remains. Regarding the Sumerian remains:          The forehead was retreating and the brow ridges were always prominent, the cheek bones were rather broad and the nose also was broad, in some case inclining to extreme platyrrhine…There can be no doubt that this type is that which has been described by Sergi, Giuffrida-Ruggeri, and Fleure, and named the Eurafican type…[29] Regarding the Akkadian remains: The second type is also dolichocephalic, and in some case it is not always easy to distinguish it from the other, although typical specimens are clear enough. The main distinction occurs in the contours which are rounded, when viewed from the top, and not angular as in the previous type. The eyebrow ridges which in the first type were well marked are nearly absent, and the occiput is especially prominent. The orbits are usually horizontal and the whole build is markedly slender.     There can be little hesitation in ascribing this type to the people who have been called by Elliot Smith ‘the brown race.’[30] The Sumerian remains show a strongly negroid nose, while other features are non-negroid, using “negroid” here in the anthropological sense, i.e. dolicranic (longheaded), platyrhine (broad nose), high facial index (short broad face) prognathous (protruding upper jaw/lower face) and ulotrious (wooly hair). And while the Akkadian features are less robust than those of the Sumerian, the two groups are clearly variations of the same type, and thus are ethnically related. Buxton and Rice use loaded terms to describe these two populations: Eurafrican and ‘brown race’/Mediterranean type. As Runoko Rashidi aptly notes, these are “ridiculous ethnic euphemisms,”[31] and Diop correctly exposed these terms as “simply a euphemism for negro (i.e. Black person generally).”[32] G. Sergie describes this alleged ‘racial type’ in his The Mediterranean Race: A Study of the Origin of European Peoples: this stock in its external features is a brown human variety, neither white nor negroid, but pure in its elements, that is to say not a product of the mixture of Whites with Negroes or negroid peoples…These external characters are brown colour of the skin, eyes…hair, beard, and the hair on other parts of the body…the body is well formed and proportioned, of medium stature…the nose is either leptorhine or mesorhine (i.e. more or less narrow), the apertures of the eyes horizontal and rather large, the lips sometimes thin and sometimes a little thick and fleshy…(etc.)[33]   Because most of these features are non-negroid, early race scientists claimed that these brown-skinned peoples that originated in Africa (thus Eurafrican) and included such groups as the Gallas of Ethiopia and Somalis, were actually brown-skinned Caucasians.[34] It has been demonstrated however that these physical traits actually represent an authentic, indigenous African phenotype and has nothing to do with Caucasians or Europeans.[35] As well argued by Wyatt MacGaffey, the continued use of these euphemisms in scholarly literature is ideological rather than scientific. It is clear that ‘the Brown or Mediterranean race’ is an extremely imprecise concept. Its survival is to be attributed to its ideological usefulness, no small part of which lies in its ambiguity. In a word, it is a myth…the Brown race [concept] is without scientific value, and must be regarded as a myth with specific ideological functions related to the colonial situation. [36] Dana Marniche likewise made the point well: New interpretations of biological evolution along the Nile have helped to dispel the myth of the ancient Mediterranean as a type affiliated with modern Europeans or Caucasoids…the perceived lessening of ‘Negroid’ attributes does not nullify the fact that the ancient type designated ‘proto-Mediterranean,’ or ‘Brown Mediterranean’ since the turn of the century, was in no way allied to, nor descended from the type now designated Europoid or Caucasoid. On the contrary, it is today indisputable that the early Mediterraneans-who appear to have been among the first settled agriculturalists of Europe, Africa, and Southwest Asia-were direct genetic and cultural descendents of the Upper Paleolithic hunter of the Nile and North Africa.[37] The two populations of Sumer and Akkad thus both represent Africoid peoples. The Semitic Akkadians are morphologically related to the Sumerians, and the two groups are likely variations of the same physical type. Contra Diop, there is no evidence that the Semitic Akkadians were half-breeds. While the third ethnic group evidenced in the Kish remains is the ‘Armenoid’ type, i.e. brachycephalic (round-headed) Whites, the morphological measurements give no indication that the Akkadians are a cross between these and the Sumerians. The physical evidence suggests just the opposite. Such a crossbreeding would be evidenced, for example, in the length of the Akkadian head which would have been at least mesocephalic (medium), but the Semitic Akkadians defy this expectation. They are long-headed like the Sumerians. In short, both the Sumerians and the Semitic Akkadians were an Africoid group. Lipiński thus notes: A worsening of environmental conditions is indicated in North Africa ca. 3500 B.C. with the disappearance of vegetation, a major faunal break, desertification, and desertion. This might have been the period when the speakers of Proto-Semitic (sic) passed through the Nile from the West to the East, and reached Western Asia…from North Africa, wave after wave of Semitic migrations would seem to have set forth. The earliest of these migrants, and those who went farthest to the East, were the Akkadians who, journeying along the Fertile Crescent through Palestine and Syria, and crossing over into Mesopotamia, reached Northern Babylon ca. 3000 B.C. and founded the first Semitic Empire at Kish.[38] Drusilla Dunjee Houston was thus right on point when she wrote: The northern Accadians and the southern Sumerians were both Cushites. The finds of recent exploration in the Mesopotamian valley reveal that these ancient inhabitants were black, with the cranial formation of Ethiopians.[39] There is important iconographic evidence as well affirming the Africanity of the Akkadians and disproving Diop’s “brachycephalic Yellow mulatto” theory. First is the famous Victory Stele of Naram-Sin, grandson of Sargon of Agade and third Akkadian ruler (r. 2254 – 2218 BCE). The stele depicts Naram-Sin’s military victory c. 2200 BCE over his enemies, the Lullubi peoples of the Zargos Mountains plain of Iran. Unlike the hill-peoples of the Zargos mountains such as the Gutians who were a white, the Lullubi were so-called Negritios and no doubt related to the indigenous Africoid peoples of that area, the Elamites. The Negroid features of the defeated Lullubi are clear in the depiction on the stele and is often commented on. Equally notable, however, is the Negroid character of the Akkadian soldiers themselves. As Sir Percy Sykes wrote: There is the fact that in most ancient bas-reliefs, figures of Negritos appear with frequency. More especially is this the case in the famous stele of Naramsin…where the monarch, who is of Semitic type, is portrayed as leading Negritos to victory.[40]        The soldiers led by Naramsin are Akkadian,[41] and there is no reason for Sykes to ethnically distinguish the king from his troops. This was clearly demonstrated by the reproductions published by Paul Carus.[42] The Akkadian soldiers, like the Lullubi, are both long-headed and round-headed, prognathous and orthognathous, but all unmistakably Kushite or Africoid. Yet the profile of Naram-Sin in no way stands out among this panoply. These Semitic Akkadians are clearly Kushite. Naramsin Profile Akkadian soldiers 

Are light-skinned people & white people “not human”? What do evolutionary biology experts have to say about the claims made by Quora user Malik Cool?

https://www.quora.com/How-do-Native-Africans-feel-about-black-Americans-Why-does-it-seem-like-theres-dislike-between-both-especially-with-West-Africans/answer/Malik-Cool-2

Anthropologists refer to all members of genus Homo as “human”. However, if we are talking about Homo sapiens, then the evidence is overwhelming that H. sapiens evolved in Africa with the oldest “anatomically modern” H. sapiens fossil being 100,000 years old. Not only does the genetic evidence strongly support it, but there are transitional individual fossils in Africa showing the evolution of H. ergastor to H. sapiens. There are no such fossils anywhere else. H. sapiens began “migrating” out of Africa about 70,000 years ago. By “migrating” we mean extended family groups trickling out of Africa in search of better living conditions. Our ancestors — H. ergastor — had also migrated out of Africa. A population evolved to H. neanderthal in Europe and Western Asia and another population evolved to H. denisovan in Central Asia. Speciation was not complete and there was limited interbreeding between H. sapiens and both species about 60,000 years ago. Thus, non-African H. sapiens have 1–4% neanderthal DNA sequences and SE Asians have 1–2% denisovan DNA sequences. Both neanderthals and denisovans are extinct. As H. sapiens moved into more northern latitudes with less direct sunlight (and where it was colder and they needed more clothes), there was selection pressure toward lighter skin, so that UV could cleave cholesterol in the skin to make vitamin D. This is not speciation, but an adaptation to a different environment. It’s obvious that lighter skinned populations of H. sapiens are just as much H. sapiens as any other population. This has been demonstrated by the large scale interbreeding of all human populations producing fully fertile offspring. This is in stark contrast to the limited interbreeding that took place between sapiens and neanderthals — where male hybrids were infertile. The biological definition of “species” is a population whose members freely interbreed and produce fertile offspring. Native Americans migrated across the land bridge between Asia and Alaska about 12,000 years ago. Genetics shows that Native Americans are closely related people in NorthEast Asia. Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas - Wikipedia Malik is dead wrong about the Africans being Israelites. Like other non-Africans, Israelites have neanderthal DNA, but Africans do not. Therefore, Africans cannot be descended from Israelites.

Albinism And Whiteness – The Origin Of The Caucasian

Introduction

Albinism is a rare, non-contagious, genetically inherited condition occurring in both genders regardless of ethnicity, in all countries of the world. Both the father and mother must carry the gene for it to be passed on even if they do not have albinism themselves. The condition results in a lack of pigmentation in the hair, skin and eyes, causing some vulnerability to exposure to bright light. Almost all people with albinism have a visual impairment, permanent or intermittent, with a significant number classified as “legally blind”. While numbers may vary, in North America and Europe it is estimated that 1 in every 20,000 people have some form of albinism. In many parts of Africa, albinos enjoy equal treatment, even revered as embodiments of spirits, while in a few other regions in central, eastern and southern Africa albinos face some form of bias. Some of these cultures believe that albinos do not die – they translate to the ancestral world. That they are either revered as spiritual incarnations or discriminated against because they translate into the ancestral world are not mutually exclusive. Still other traditions in Africa perceive albinism as a sign of bad luck and as a result albinos are ostracized.This theology is equidistant from the former. For those who do not wish their enemies re-incarnate in the form of albinos, the belief haunts their very existence. Some albinos are therefore ostracized for this and other reasons. Among the Mandinke for example, a child born with albinism is bad omen. Notably, the Malian renowned singer dubbed the Man with the Golden Voice, and a contributor to the development of Afro-pop – Salif Keita – was ostracized from his family despite being born of royal blood. He is a direct descendant of the founder of the Mali Empire, Sundiata Keita.

Malian Albino singer, Salif Keita.

In Ghana, albinos are referred to as ofiri djato, which is quite different from the name for a caucasian – obroni. In general, albinos in Ghana, as in many parts of Africa, face no persecution or discrimination. In fact, there are many influential albinos in national affairs and politics. A celebrated legal luminary and the long time president of the Ghana Boxing Association (GBA), Moses Foh-Amoaning, is a well-known albino across the continent.

Attorney Moses Foh-Amoaning,Ghana`s leading Sport Analyst.

It is also alleged that the great Okomfo Anokye, the priest that conjured the Golden Stool of the revered Ashanti Kingdom, co-founder of the Ashanti, was an albino himself, ostracized by the Kingdom of Dahomey. Further, a renowned deity of worship in Brong Ahafo, Ghana, bears the name “Kwaku Firi Shrine” (Kwaku, the Albino, Shrine) at Anwoase. Hence, it is parochial for the international community to continue to spread a false portrayal of Africa as a place unsafe for albinos. Some media outlets in the US and Europe paint the continent as a barbaric shop dicing albinos into pieces for food. Such allegations are symptomatic of a west that is still mystified by Africa. There is no denying that the unique problems that some albinos face in certain parts of Africa, as they do in other parts of the world, should be confronted and eradicated with a deserved attention. But a careful focus is needed in order to identify and transform some customs still practiced in these African traditions, and the rest of the world. Otherwise an immoral disservice is done to many African tradtions that accept and treat their children, whether they are albinos or not, with the same decorum of civility of culture, tradition and custom they are entitled to as human beings. The same cannot be said of how peoples of African descent have been and are treated in Europe or America. The same cannot be said of a hypocritical West that continues to point the finger at Africans for any and every mishap on the continent.

An albino Royal in procession with his Akan Chieftaincy retinue.

The turgid discrimination against Africans, which Europeans introduced, the falsification of history and the pseudo-sciences that have been practiced for centuries to entrench these belief systems has led to the issue of racialization of Africans by people of European descent. By separating Europe from Africa, Europeans have come to call themselves, Caucasians. And before we can understand it, a careful analysis of the origin of the so-called Caucasian must be appreciated. It is common knowledge that Africans spread across the world and dominated it. Even today’s Europeans, or Caucasians are in fact Africans who moved north and conquered the snow and the coniferous forests Genotypically, the Caucasian today is not very different from the African. Caucasian gene pool in fact represent a tiny fraction of the gene-pool of Africans. It’s pretty much a conclusion in Genetics that the Caucasian gene-pool, albeit trimmed of its original African diversity, still represents a subset of the gene-pool of Africans. The question then arises. What has it been trimmed of? What is in the African gene that the Caucasians have lost? Are Caucasians albinos from Africa and more? Let us first address the problem with classification. The origin of the labels Caucasian, Negroid, and Mongoloid, with 19th century European scientists is seen generally as  the precursors for current racial groupings. The groupings are based on nothing but skin color. European naturalists and anthropologists like Johann F. Blumenbach, J. A. Gobineau and H. S. Chamberlain went even further. They equated skin color gradation to a psychological and mental gauge. Blumenbach named Europeans, atop this gauge, after the Caucasus Mountains because he thought the smartest and purest Europeans originated there. He didn’t seem to realize the following: Russia, Chechens, Armenians, and other Southern Russians were considered to have Black origins, and that the Caucasus Mountain people were largely classified as “black” in many Eastern European cultures. But with increasing frenzy over skin color and its value to mental capacity, people of the Caucasus Mountains were discriminated against by their fellow Europeans. Blacks have lived in Southern Russia since prehistoric times and have occupied the Black Sea Region since the time of Senwosret/Sesostris (2000 BC), when African armies dominated the region

(see ‘HERODOTUS’ ON THE COLCHIANS).

From Africa – Or not from Africa?

The American Anthropological Association (AAA) declares there is no such thing as race – they now claim it is merely a “social construct,” in stark contrast to their belief at the beginning of the last century – that Blacks are an inferior form of Homo Sapiens. African scientists like Cheikh Anta Diop have always maintained the social construction of race by caucasian academics. It is constructive that the AAA has now been forced to accept facts, but they still fail to take into consideration the hypothesis that caucasians might actually be Black albinos. According to The South African Institute for Medical Research, Journal of South African Science, a review, THE HIGH FREQUENCY OF ALBINISM IN AFRICA, provides more clues to early caucasian history. The Department of Human Genetics at the SAIMR is currently involved with numerous research projects, most related to human genetic disorders and population origins. One of these, ‘Albinism in African peoples’ having received particular attention because it offers new insights into the historical movement of peoples in sub-Saharan Africa to Europe and the origin of the caucasian. Similar to the genetics of sickle cell anemia, albinism shows parallels as a melanin anemia. About one in 35 southern Africans is a carrier of an albinism mutation, a surprisingly high prevalence for a genetic disorder where the homozygote is at a survival disadvantage. It is postulated that carrying a recessive gene for albinism may be an adaptive mutation, similar to malaria as carriers of sickle cells are less prone to dying from malaria. But for what adaptation in particular is albinism protective against? That is yet to be found. New genetic information derived from the Human Genome Project, an international effort to decode the entire human genome, confirmed to the world by scientists in the East Room of the White House (June, 2000) that Europeans only appeared in the last 65,000 years from the same small number of tribes that migrated out of Africa and colonized that part of the world. That means a caucasian is not removed any further from an African by more than the 50th cousin. “All human beings are 99.99% the same at the genetic level and the remaining 0.1% genetic variation that exist seldom segregate in a manner that confines to the racial boundaries constructed by social political means.”

The Origination of the Caucasian

African folklore hold the belief that tribes with significant carriers of the mutated gene for albinism eventually migrated northward through Egypt to another area of Africa which is now called Europe, seeking a more hospitable living environment for their offspring – escape the intensity of the equatorial hot climate of the great river valleys and great lakes region of Central, Eastern and Southern Africa, which was then and still is South of what is now called Egypt. The “albino” group moved up in the mountainous area during the Ice Age or Glaciations period that lasted thousands of years further isolating themselves from their original parent population in Africa. And by being in such isolated living condition for such a prolonged period they also interbred (within the existing parent groups), thereby creating additional “albino” offsprings from “albino” mothers and fathers.

What is a mutation?

A mutation results in a change of the DNA sequence within a gene or chromosome of an organism resulting in the creation of a new character or trait not found in the parental type. There is blonde hair among the black Australian aborigines. That is an example of a mutation. Albinism is a good example of a mutation. Other examples of mutations are blondism or whiteness among monkeys, apes, and chimpanzees.

Europeans do not have the genetic ability to produce the different skin pigments seen throughout the world. That absence of skin pigment creates the inability to produce colors. As a result, uncolored or white skin is produced. European genes are recessive to the dominant African genes that code for melanin. Recessive genes delineate body characteristics that are masked or not expressed when a contrasting dominant black or trait is present. Black genes create people who have curly hair and whose skin is easily tanned.

New born albino baby by a Sudanese woman.

Biblical Evidence of White Skin

There are many cases of individuals turning white in Hebrew history. When God wanted to show Moses a miracle, he turned his hand “white as snow;” then God turned his hand back again to its original color of black. In ancient Hebrew times, when a man had a white spot on his skin or white or yellow hair, or white skin somewhat reddish, he was pronounced unclean. All people who were victims of this shameful disease were isolated outside of the camp or city and segregated. King James invented “discrimination of the divine” when he and his team of 47 European interpreters translated the King James Version of The Holy Bible. Purity, virtue, and goodness spew from every pictorial page of White European Biblical characters. The Bible reveals a blue-eyed White Jesus hanging on a cross, a golden-haired White Moses showing the “Tablets of Law to the People,” and praying at Mt. Sinai upon every turn of a page. I am King James, and I proclaim “Ham, the youngest son of Noah, to be the father of the Black Race.” Many contradictions exist with these parochial interpretations. On one hand, Ham is the father of the Black Race because he was cursed and “condemned to Hell”. In Gen. 9:18-29 Ham is the recipient of a curse – “Let Canaan be cursed.” That implies that the Canaanites were Black. Furthermore, the Berbers were also described as the indigenous caucasoid people of Northern Africa in many scholarly European and American papers, but the Berber language is a Hamitic/Semitic Language. Does that mean the Berbers were Black? The Cushites (Ethiopians) and ancient Egyptians also spoke Semitic Languages. They predate the Canaanites. Does that mean they were Black before even Canaan was born? More atrocious, the European Church of white Jesus, declares that the so-called originator of the Black Race, “the accursed Canaan,” and all of his descendants will be damned. Further, these Euro-centric church officials developed a mind-set of “heathen Blacks” to devise and formulate deceptive historical attitudes and viewpoints for oppressing and exploiting Africa and the rest of the world. The ‘Aryan Nation’ has come to believe its group does the on-going work of white Jesus the Christ in re-gathering His people, calling His people to a state for their nation to ring in His Kingdom. The ‘Aryan Nation’ believes that Adam, the man of Genesis, is the placing of the white race upon this Earth. Not all races descend from Adam. Adam is the father of the white people only. The Book of Enoch which has Hamitic authorship is considered to be the earliest biblical record of antiquity widely quoted throughout the King James Version of the Bible. The Book of Enoch was found among the Dead Sea Scrolls in the caves of the Qumran. Enoch was Noah’s grandfather and Methuselah’s father. Methuselah was the oldest man in the Bible living to be 969 (perhaps a shady arithmetic at best). After reading the Book of Enoch, it is evident that the entire Creation of Heaven and Earth has not been taught in European and American Churches. If this book was written before the book of Genesis, and in a Semitic language, aren’t we back to Black? The King James Version of the Bible sticks with Genesis however as the beginning of time. In Genesis 4:15, God orders Cain out of the Garden of Eden. Cain goes out from the presence of the Lord, and dwells in the land of Nod, on the East of Eden. There he knew his wife and conceived. “The Land of Nod” magically appears without explanation. If Adam and Eve were the first two people on earth, who lived in the Land of Nod? The word “Genesis” is be-rasheet in Hebrew, an African/Edenic language that Western philologists in the 18th Century classified as part of the family of languages. Be-rasheet means “in the beginning” in a time when God created all things. (African Heritage Bible, 1).

Leprosy among the Hebrews and Snow White Miriam

Reuters Photo – September 2009
Associated Newspapers, LTD
Black Brazilian Parents have three Albino Children

In 14th century B.C., plagues were endemic through the Middle East and Kemet (now called Egypt). The Book of Numbers states that Miriam and Aaron, sister and brother to Moses, revolted against their brother’s leadership. Miriam and Aaron spoke against Moses because he had married an Ethiopian woman. They asked if the Lord had indeed spoken only to Moses? Their challenge to Moses angered God. As a punishment “Miriam became leprous, white as snow” (Greenberg, 197). While Europeans busied themselves with labeling the entire Black Race as cursed, a fair-haired English physicist came up with the color spectrum in the mid 17th Century disputing further the claims of the “White European Hamitic Theory.” If Noah and his wife were caucasoid, it would have been impossible to produce three different races of people. The color theory was proven by Sir Isaac Newton 300 years ago, but the Webster’s Dictionary still defines Ham as the “Father of the Black Race.” Newton’s theory presents solid proof that out of black comes all colors. By mixing the three primary colors of red, blue, and yellow together, the color black is produced. Black is the color from which all other colors are produced and is dominant. White, on the other hand, is the color of maximal lightness from which no other colors can be produced and is recessive.

Racial Engineering

Anthropologists have rushed to reclassify the world’s Black types. Through “Caucasian racial engineering”, some Brown Races have become hypothetically “White.” It has increased the White Race totals with a deceptive apportionment numbering system. The system has been designed to expand and extend white Race counts, which only amount to 8 percent worldwide (United Nations Population Division).

In “Echoes of the Old Darkland” by Charles Finch III, MD, a doctor of medicine at Yale, the following is quoted:

“We propose that the… population that survived the last glaciations in southwestern Eurasia was largely a group of albinoids who were better adapted to the ecology than their darker relatives who had originally colonized the area. These latter were gradually replaced by albinoids, though small groups of African aboriginal types long persisted on the North Atlantic seaboard because of the availability of Vitamin-D-rich salt-water fish. This “goodness-of-fit” of the albinoids in this northern environment was due to the more efficient Vitamin D production and utilization in the whitened skin in these sunlight-deficient latitudes and better cold resistance.” “The Ice Age had the practical effect of isolating this marginal groups from other populations for a prolonged period, promoting a consanguinity that allowed the recessive albinoid genes to express and propagate themselves. Creation of a new race via de-pigmentation is consistent with the tendency in nature of new species and subspecies to form out of marginal groups that have become isolated from their “parent” populations and subjected more or less abruptly to extreme environmental conditions, which generate intense selection pressure.” (Op. cit. p. 35).

People with Natural Blonde Hair are Disappearing and will be Extinct in 200 Years

Reuters Photo – September 2009
Associated Newspapers, LTD
Black Brazilian Parents have three Albino children.

New research suggests that people with blonde hair will be completely extinct in 200 years. Blonde hair occurs only in people from northern Europe. The blonde gene that causes blonde hair color must be on both sides of the family, and according to the World Health Organization, there are now too few people who carry it. Professor Jonathan Rees from Edinburgh University is leading a two-year study into the genetics of blondes. Scientists say blondes will survive longest in Scandinavia where they are most concentrated, and they predict the last one alive will be from Finland. “Globally, Europeans who call themselves white risk “genetic elimination.” That is why Caucasians (who are now dubbed the 8 per centers) are rapidly presenting the world with a conjured-up system of so-called “statistical numbers of non-truth” as a way to implant new suppositions and beliefs. The non-truth firepower has the ability to deliver psyche-up, illusory gunfire amounting to numerical warheads on the target of more caucasian deceit. The duplicity will end up fabricating a sort of actuality – statistical ballistic weaponry to maximize the dwindling white group numbers.” The original Indo-Europeans referred to, as Aryans were nomads who herded animals in the steppes north of the Black Sea, in what is now the Ukraine. Between 5,000 and 6,000 years ago, the Aryans migrated into Europe on horseback and conquered a series of cultures. When trying to trace pre-historic man to Europeans, it was found that Indo-Iranian languages make up a major branch of the Indo-European family of languages (Bower, 120+). The Sinhalese Language is an Indo-European language of the Indo-Aryan family. The earliest surviving specimens of the language are brief inscriptions on rocks in Brahmi Letters from 200 BC. The most considerable amount of dated Aryan language dates to about AD 1000 (Encyclopedia Britannica, 567). Linguistics link the Iranian language to African languages. Iranian languages include the Arabic language. Arabic belongs to the Semitic language group. Semitic includes Ethiopic and Hebrew peoples who lived in one of Africa’s greatest civilizations – Kemet (Black Nation). The implication being made is the following: Caucasians cannot validate a rudimentary white civilization. It has been proven that modern civilization as we know it started in the great river valleys of Africa in the Fertile Crescent by Black Africans. That includes all languages as well.

Conclusion

Reuters Photo – September 2009
Associated Newspapers, LTD
Black Brazilian Parents have three Albino children.

Albinos occur in all races of mankind and in all animal groups. Albinism arises from a distinct hereditary interference with the normal function of melanocytes. The enzyme tyrosinase is necessary for the formation of melanin and determines the color of the skin, hair, and eyes. Most children with albinism are born to parents who have normal hair and eye color for their ethnic backgrounds. White skin is a form of albinism. There is no difference, genetically or phenotypically speaking, between the white skin of a caucasoid person and the skin of a person designated as an albino in Africa. Black people with albinism tend to have hair of a deep bright yellow, cream-colored skin, and green or hazel eyes. In the caucasian race, blonde hair, blue eyes, and alabaster skin are considered so highly desirable that brunettes often bleach their hair or wear colored contacts to look like Albinos. One of the most glorious periods of English History was that of the reign of Queen Victoria (1819-1901). The Victorians wore white wigs and powdered their skin to a chalky white probably in awe of their ancestors. Similarly, the powdered white wig worn by American colonial era illuminati reflected the wearer’s ability to afford luxury items and identified himself as one of the educated elite. In Biblical times in Africa and beyond, people with albinism were banished or thrown out, and forced to live in colonies just as people with leprosaria or Hansen’s Disease were forced to live in leper colonies and away from other people. Africans believed that God was delivering judgment on a family with albinism and that the individual with albinism is cursed or is the embodiment of sin. White-skinned people came into existence thousands of years ago as the albino groups in Africa migrated north to Europe also to escape the intensity of the equatorial sun of the Southern hemisphere (Welsing, 23). During Biblical times Albinos were ostracized. The same thing is happening today when albinism occurs in some African societies. Albinos are ostracized by their own families – especially in Black families where the difference in skin color is more distinct. The ostracizing of albinos during Biblical times is explanation enough of how Europeans have come to be – African albinos produced more and more albinos until there was an albino group significant to form a new ethnic group – or caucasians.

By CHEIKH ANTA DIOP. A. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

The following development is intended to show: (1) that the level of melanin is a fundamental racial characteristic; (2) that this rate can very well be measured in practice by various methods in the laboratory for all races and for living or dead beings. We then applied the method to a few Egyptian mummies preserved in the anthropological laboratory of the Musée de l’Homme in Paris, thanks to the kindness of Mrs. CHAMLA, head of the department, and her aides. We used the technique of thin sections observed in ultraviolet or natural light; The preparations were graciously prepared by Mrs. J. GUILLEN, a technician in the physiology laboratory of the Faculty of Sciences of Dakar and Mr Mamadou CISSE, in charge of the IFAN Vertebrate Department. The results speak for themselves: first of all, contrary to widespread opinion1 , mummification processes do not destroy the epidermis to the point of rendering the method inapplicable in most cases. In particular, it would make it possible to analyze the skin of all the royal mummies of the Cairo Museum in perfect state of preservation: Thutmosis III, founder of the XVIIIth dynasty, the conqueror of all Western Asia, Sethi (Seti) I the founder Of the XIXth Dynasty, his son the famous Rameses II. The game would be worth the candle, and that’s why I tried to get samples to analyze. The Curator of the Cairo Museum, Dr. RYAD (Riyadh?), had promised to send me, but I have been waiting for more than a year. I am surprised, however, that such an analysis has not already been attempted and carried out by other researchers for a very long time. In any case, we can say that such an examination undoubtedly reveals an unknown melanin level in leucoderm races and undoubtedly classifies ancient Egyptians among Africans of Black Africa. Let us make some general remarks before discussing the purely technical exposition of the method. It should be noted at the outset that even today’s Egyptians, after so many millennia of crossbreeding, still belong to the blood group B of the Negroes of West Africa 2 except group A2, except for the present inhabitants of the delta region that have obviously come from elsewhere. Since the blood groups of the last prehistory men can in some cases be determined from their skeletons and the remains of their mummies, there is a possibility of studying migration. The blood group A, is of importance to anthropology. It is characteristic of whites of European origin 3, and is not found in principle in colored races, in Negroes in particular. The Gloger rule states that in warm-blooded higher animals the melanin pigmentation tends to grow with a. Heat and humidity. A high degree of moisture, combined with a high degree of heat causes black pigmentation. The maximum pigmentation being in the warm regions of the equator and the minimum at the Arctic Circle. The same scale seems to be valid for man 4 On the other hand, the triumph of the thesis of the monogenetic origin of mankind obliges us to reconsider all ethnic problems from a new angle. In drawing all the consequences of this fact, it must be admitted that all other races are born of the Negro race perhaps from a differentiation of the man from Grimaldi in Europe. The present laws of heredity would not oppose it. Quantum chemistry even attempts to formulate the law of biological mutations, or in any case to give a satisfactory scientific explanation 5. The Grimaldi would have passed through Gibraltar and Spain as the man of the Acheulean would have done. Another fairly probable parallel route would be through Tunisia, Sicily and southern Italy. A humanity born under the latitude of the Great Lakes must, according to what follows, be pigmented and black on the functional role of pigmentation, and according to the rule of GLOGER. If this hypothesis is to be taken into account (and it is difficult to see how the present state of scientific research could be escaped), the picture of the evolution of the human species would be as follows: a strongly pigmented Negroid Homo sapiens (GLOGER’s law) would have moved from the Great Lakes region (Kenya, Ethiopia, Uganda) to populate the rest of the world by migration. For Dr. LEAKEY, not only Homo faber but Homo sapiens-sapiens was also born in Black Africa at least 150,000 years ago 6. We believe that this man would have gained Europe, not by the Suez isthmus and the periphery of the Eastern Mediterranean where his traces are non-existent, but by the Sahara, Spain or Italy, which gives a singular importance The rock paintings that mark this voice and, it must be said, raises problems of chronology. But they are in the process of finding a scientific solution. In fact, they were the consequence of a sort of curse which the eminent French scholar Vaufrey had thrown upon Africa without making it on purpose: “Africa is lagging behind,” he had written; From then on, it became a sacrilege to attribute an age of any age to anything in black Africa. Nothing here could be connected chronologically to anything in Europe. But here is the advent of absolute chronology (potassium-argon, C-14, etc.) which restores the rights of science against the prejudices of scientists, hence the triumph of the monogenetic origin of man with localization The cradle of humanity in Africa: it was the potassium-argon method and related methods that made this feat possible. It is even known that men probably of the species Sapiens exploited the oldest mine in the world 40 000 years ago in Swaziland 7 to extract red ocher. But leaving the latter aside to return to that of the Homo sapiens of Kenya, their antiquity (they are anterior “Grimaldi and the man of Combe-Capelle) makes plausible the idea of a migration to Europe from Homo sapiens negroides (the Grimaldian in this case) in the Upper Palaeolithic. The prehistoric African facts could very well explain those of Spain and the south of France, all prejudice apart. Two difficulties would remain: (A) The Saharan chronology should one day provide dates for the Upper Palaeolithic and not only for the Neolithic in particular with regard to rock art: It may be assumed that a more detailed, more thorough and methodical study of the facts could also change our thinking on this serious issue. (B) The difficulty that prehistoric man would experience in crossing the Straits of Gibraltar. In the VII. Congress of Prehistory (Addis Ababa, 1971), the typologist, Tixier, spoke of the nervousness of the lower Palaeolithic specialists whenever they contemplate the implications of the presence of the poultry (this typically African industry) in the south Of Europe, excluding the northern regions. In fact, the idea is that in the remote period of the lower Palaeolithic, Homo faber, the man of Acheulean was already sufficiently equipped to cross the Straits of Gibraltar, much less, Grimaldi’s man of the Paleolithic era could have carried out such a feat. If such was the path followed, how to explain racial differentiation, in the present case the appearance of white or Cro-Magnon man twenty thousand years ago in the Solutrean, that is to say ten thousand years after the arrival of the Negroid Grimaldi in Europe. The problem is posed, science will answer it, but science is scientifically merited to our mind with the triumph of the monogenetic thesis. The account that we have given of the colloquium on the appearance of Homo sapiens, and the ideas which could be put forward prudently on this question8concerning the probability of mutations with a change of environment. The Grimaldi, who is in any case an invading Negroid, is the first occupant of European soil as Homo Sapiens-Sapiens and the first white appeared 10,000 years after his arrival. We may assume a mutation due to the change in physical, climatic conditions in particular, for we are in full glacial period and negroes or negroids, transplanted under such conditions for such a period of time, may well change in appearance.

FIG. 1. – Cross Section of the Grimaldi Children’s Grotto, after Boule & Vallois. Fossil Men, p. 298. N, primitive (first) level of soil; F, foci; +1, where the Negroids lay; + 2, + 3, points where the skeletons of the Cro-Magnon type lay. The distinctly negroid characters of the Cro-Magnon of Spain, the nigritic osteology of the first Cro-Magnon men of France, the late appearance of this white, the still later one of yellow (the man of Chancelade ) to the Magdalenian 15,000 years ago, so many facts that did not receive a rational explanation, become more intelligible to us in the light of this hypothesis. Western scholars have already expressed similar ideas. This is the case of Sanfourche quoting Goury: – “On the other hand, the Palaeolithic works of art clearly situate the peak of the civilization of this remote state in Western Europe, especially in the Aquitano-Cantabrian region. Manifestated from the Aurignacian as one of the first creations of the Homo sapiens, art develops in Solutreen to magnificently flourish in the Magdalenian. During this long period, it is still the West that is the initiator, or at least the transmitter of a civilization coming perhaps from the South, that is to say from North- Western region. This is what Professor GOURY thinks: “A civilization stemming from the African land, that would upset the principles so far! The classical tradition has never ceased to affirm that all ancient civilizations come from the East. We are so impregnated with traditions erected in dogmas that an African civilizational nucleus seems incomprehensible to us … What we are able to affirm is that the first current of people to whom we owe our Lower Aurignacian comes from ” Africa by Spain, and no doubt also by Italy. 9” Be that as it may, one sees that the moment is not far when the learned world will admit that the black race is the first race of Homo sapiens to exist; All the others are derived from it by a process that science will specify. It is no longer necessary to populate Black Africa and Egypt at the beginning of time by mysterious whites or non-negro races. B. TECHNICAL PART In the current state of research, the authors (R. A. Nicolaus) distinguish three kinds of melanins. (1) eumelanin or true melanin (black); (2) phaeomelanin or brown, yellow melanin; (3) Allomelanin or other melanins consisting of pigments which vary from brown to yellow. The first two varieties are found chiefly in the animal kingdom, while the latter predominates in the vegetable kingdom. Eumelanin is responsible for the color of the skin and hair. Tyrosine is the precursor of eumelanins. Black pigments are generally formed from the oxidation of diphenols such as dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA), 5-6 dihydroxyindole, catechol and 1-8 dihydroxynaphthalene, where quinone nuclei are formed with many active centers for polymerization. This is a necessary condition for obtaining a black pigment. Compounds in which the number of active centers is limited produce brown, brown, yellow-brown10 pigments. The relative insolubility of melanins makes their study delicate, as it becomes difficult to purify them. On the other hand, they are of remarkable stability, and melanin has been found on fossil specimens dating back 150 million years11; They can be heated to 600º without decomposition. According to R. A. Nicolaus, modern methods of physico-chemical analysis can not be used for the study of the structure of melanins. In fact, these absorb both in the ultraviolet and the visible violet without characteristic band. The spectroscopic study by nuclear magnetic resonance is very difficult. The infrared spectrum is irrelevant and the X-ray diffraction spectrum has just shown that the structure is not crystalline. The spectroscopic study by electron spin resonance revealed the free radical property of melanins. The study of degradation products yielded interesting results. The tracer method, which is to mark C-14 for example, a precursor like tyrosine, is full of promises. It has already made it possible to follow the formation of melanin in the hair, etc. Among the different pigments that contribute to the formation of skin color, carotene, oxyhemoglobin, reduced hemoglobin, melanin, the latter plays the role of primary racial factor in pigmentation of the skin of different breeds. Special cells called melanocytes are responsible for the formation of melanin in the “dermis” and especially in the human epidermis. Their number is relatively independent of the breed, but their activity, ie the amount of melanin they can make, depends on a racial factor linked to the genetic code: in other words, the negro has the same number of melanocytes as white and albino, for a given region of the skin but, its cells being much more active, will produce more grains of melanin than those of white due to the activity of tyrosinase, an enzyme which controls the formation of melanin. The melanocytes are found in the malpighi layer of the epidermis, 1035 per mm2 in the negro.12. It appears that there is no qualitative difference in melanin in passing from one breed to the other, but only in rate variations. The development of melanin generally requires three elements: the substrate (tyrosine or DOPA), the enzyme catalyst for the oxidation reaction of the substrate and oxygen. The reaction depends on several factors, temperature, pH, oxidation-reduction potential, and presence of enzyme inhibitor such as sulfur-containing reducing functional groups. Tyrosinase-inhibiting biochemicals all contain the functional group – N-C- and are potent reducing agents. S There is nevertheless a correlation between the size and morphology of the melanocytes and their activity. The protein supporting albino tyrosinases is genetically defective 13. The gene responsible for albino acts via groups, reducing agents. It has been thought that the oxidation of 5-6 dihydroxyindole can be inhibited in albino animals by sulfur functional groups which are present in melanic melanocytes. The αMSH (melanin-stimulating hormone) β-MSH and ACTH (adrenocorticotropin hormone) stimulate the differentiation of non-pigmented melanoblast cells into pigmented melanocytes. The activity of tyrosinase is promoted by the hormonal secretion of the pituitary gland. The electron resonance spin (e.s.r.) detected in natural melanins is attributed to the existence of free radicals trapped in the polymerized mass of the macromolecules. The paramagnetism of melanins would thus be explained; Same electron exchangers,

MELANIN FORMATION FROM TYROSINE

The electron resonance spin (e.s.r.) detected in natural melanins is attributed to the existence of free radicals trapped in the polymerized mass of the macromolecules. The paramagnetism of melanins would thus be explained; Same electron exchangers, Melanins may have a protective role for organ- ism against oxidation-reduction phenomena and trapping of free radicals that could disturb the metabolism of living cells. They could protect the skin from radiation by such mechanism. Melanins are probably a mixture of macromolecules formed by the copolymerization of Different precursors. Hydrogen peroxide discolours eumelanin. Melanin is purified by: 1) washing with 1% HCl 2) hot extraction with acetone 3)Prolonged boiling in concentrated Hcl. According to electron microscopic studies, two types of epidermal cells are responsible for skin pigmentation: melanocyte and squamous cell; The dendritic melanocyte produces melanin and distributes it to neighboring squamous cells. (P. DROCHMANS, pp. 155-156). Melanocytes contain tyrosinase, an enzyme that transforms tyrosine and more rapidly DOPA into melanin. This is dispersed in the form of grains in the cell and in its dendritic extensions. The melanocytes have an epidermal localization and those whose penkaryon plunges entirely into the dermis, remain separated by the dermal membrane. The squamous cells, thus pigmented, carry away the pigmentation during their evolution towards the surface of the epidermis. Quantitative Determination Method. The measurement of the color of the skin by spectrophotometry was carried out in America as early as 1939, on whites, Japanese. Hindus, Mulattoes and Negroes, the skins of corpses, and the results were conclusive14. The sum of the absorptions, transmissions and reflections of the different layers of the skin is characteristic of it; Five pigments and a dispersion factor play an important role: the melanoid must be added to the four already mentioned. A flap of black skin (25 square inches) is macerated in 5% KOH, melanin being soluble in dilute alkalis; The solution obtained is assayed by spectrophotometry; The analysis reveals a high absorption (without characteristic band however) at the beginning of the visible spectrum in the violet and a minimum absorption at the end of the spectrum in the red. The transmission grows without rupture from violet to red. Melanin, like other pigments, obeys Beer’s law, that is, the logarithm of the transmission is directly proportional to the concentration.

FIG. 2. Results of the measurement of skin color spectrophotometry, according to Adwards & Duntley, the pigments and color of living human skin.

I. Comparison of the skin of the buttocks of men of different “colors”.

II. Transmission through solutions of various concentrations of melanin in 5% KOH. Note the marked but gradual absorption at the violet end.

III. Transmission and reflection of the corneal layer of a corpse heel, As the horny layer is translucent (even more than in living organisms), transmission is strong and reflection is weak.

      On the abscissa, wavelength in millimicrons,

The idea that racial differences in color are due solely to variations in the amount of melanin in the epidermis was confirmed by the observations made on dissolved melanin. Melanin has an equivalent behavior under the skin and in solution. The spectrophotometric properties of melanin, among others (absorption band in the visible violet) classify the melanoid as a degradation product of melanin. The woman is generally less pigmented than the man of the same race. The amount of melanoid formed always depends on the amount of melanin present and the storage depends on the thickness of skin, epidermis. Both varieties of blood hemoglobins have characteristic absorption bands and transmission peaks. The light is reflected by the epidermis, the dermis and the walls of the veins. The carotene has an absorption band in blue at 482 mμ. By dissolution and spectrophotometric analysis, it was possible to determine that the color of the fat is due to the carotene, which is also present in the thick parts of the epidermis. All pigments have a predominant absorption in blue. The transmitted light contains a larger proton of long wavelengths (red) while the reflected light contains the short wavelengths (blue), this is a dispersion effect. The racial differences are explained by the quantities of melanin and melanoid, excluding other pigments, carotene, hemoglobin. Ross Aiken Gortner studied the effect of alkalies on melanin and described the conditions for good extraction without decomposition with 0.2% sodium hydroxide. The melanin obtained is then soluble in acetic acid, formic acid or mineral acids having a concentration of less than N / 10. Otherwise losses easily reach 50%. Melanin decomposes as soon as the concentration of alkali exceeds the content of 0.2%, according to this author who observes: “a black product can be obtained from black wool by any method”15. If the pigment is well prepared the combustion does not leave ash and the H, C, N, S, O. rates can then be determined according to the conventional methods of analysis: combustion in an oxygen stream, Dumas method For nitrogen, etc. A.J. Lea relates the solubility of all varieties of melanin in cold ethylene chlorohydrin: it does not appear to be a combination with the so-called solvent, as is the case with diethylamine, because The residual product after evaporation retains all the properties of melanin 16. A good resolution of melanin grains can be obtained by microscopic observation in ultraviolet light by thin sections fixed to glutaraldehyde and post-fixed with osmium tetroxide17. V. VILTER remarks that: “the larvae of Amblystoma mexicanum change color according to the conditions of brightness or according to the color of the background on which they develop. This phenomenon of chromatic adaptation is subject to the control of the nervous system through vision. ” The stay of the larvae on a black background provokes the gradual darkening of the color of the integuments. The melanophores of the segmental melanic spots of the young larvae spread out considerably, which determines the more intense tint and the gradual confluence of these spots. The Axolotls, which are made to remain on a white ground, exhibit a coloration of the integuments, which gradually becomes lighter in young larvae, and the segmental patches gradually diminish in extent and intensity owing to the contraction of the melanophores. If one prolongs the stay on a white ground, the melamic pattern is soon represented only by small rounded patches of greyish color clearly separated from one another18. An Austro-American group of researchers has recently stated that the color of the skin depends particularly on the regular distribution of melanotomes, a phenomenon more pronounced in black than in any other breed. CONCLUSION It is clear from the foregoing that physical anthropology thus has a method that is both powerful and fine, practicable whenever the animal or human remains to be analyzed include flaps of skins: this method is therefore also applicable to the A protohistoric race from Egypt studied by Elliot Smith who often harvested pieces of skins. Perhaps one could also re-examine Serge’s “brown” race, which populated the entire Mediterranean periphery with protohistory and which is complacently identified with the protodynastic Egyptian race? The power of the method of analysis described above contrasts with the rarity of its use. However, its fineness must not lead to the excesses of molecular anthropology which allowed the classification of two twin brothers in different racial categories. Strictly speaking, the samples of skins analyzed should have undergone an identical treatment: a freshly harvested skin (of Negro or other) should have undergone beforehand a mummification process which, by partially destroying the epidermis, would leave especially the nuclei of the melanocytes In the form of inclusions in the tissues separating the dermis and the epidermis: in this case only the melanin contents would be strictly comparable. Footnotes 1. Thomas J. Pettigrew, Pettigrew’s history of Egyptian mummies, London, 1934. G. Elliot SMITH and W. R. Dawson: Egyptian mummies, London, 1924. 2. Ashley Montagu, an Introduction to Physical Anthropology, third. ed., 1960, Charles C. Thomas Publisher, Illinois (USA), p. 337 3. MoNTAGU, ор. cit., p. 344 4. Op, cit, p. 366. 5. Op cit, p. 390. 6. PULLMANN B. & A…: Quantum biochemistry Inter science. 7. Cheikh Anta Drop : L’apparition de l’Homo sapiens, Bull. IFAN, tome XXXII, série B, no 3, 1970. 8. Leakey : rapport (sous presse) du VIIe Congrès Panafricain de préhistoire à Addis Abeba (1971). 9. Cheikh Anta Diop : L’apparition de l’Homo Sapiens: Bull, IFAN, t. XXXII, série B. 10. Cheikh Anta Diop, op. Cit, 11. La fin du Néolithique et l’apparition des métaux, Revue de la métallurgie, n° 8 1954 par A. A. Sanfourche. 12. R. A. Nicolaus : Melanins, Paris, Hermann 1968. 13. R. A. Nicolaus, op. cit., р- 11 14. L’identité antomique et de nombre des organes de la pigmentation chez toutes les races militerait pour une origine monogénétique de l’humanité : la différence de la pigmentation étant d’origine purement physiologique et fonction du climat. 15. Nicolaus, op. cit., р 12 16. Lucia T.Y. Chian Elal : Tyrosinas inhibitor : its role in suntanning and albinism in Science, vol. 155, p. 138 et suivantes. 17. Edward A. et. coll. The Pigments and color of living human skin: in American Journal of anatomy, vol. 65, no. 1, juillet 1939. 18. Ross Aiken Gortner. Effect of Alkali on Melanin, p. 346. 19. LEA A. J. Nature, vol. 156, p. 478, 20 octobre 1945. 20. Κ. Κ. Μυstakalliο et al, Dermatologica (1967), p. 134, 187, 190. Resolution of melanin granules and epidermal cell types by U.V. television microscope and by high contrast phase microscopy of electron microscopic section. 21. V. VILTER : Modification du système mélanique chez les Axolotls soumis l’action des fonds blancs et noirs. Société de biologie, 1931, p. 774 et suivantes.

In July 1973 Cheikh Anta Diop published a paper on the pigmentation of the Ancient Egyptians (Kemetians). In the paper he established melanin levels as a fundamental racial characteristic and that there exist laboratory methods to measure melanin levels for both dead and living beings. One issue presented in opposition… February 13, 2018 In "Dr. Cheikh Anta Diop"

The

Early Modern Homo sapiens All people today are classified as Homo sapiens.  Our species of humans first began to evolve nearly 200,000 years ago in association with technologies not unlike those of the early Neandertals.  It is now clear that early Homo sapiens, or modern humans, did not come after the Neandertals but were their contemporaries.  However, it is likely that both modern humans and Neandertals descended from Homo heidelbergensis. Compared to the Neandertals and other late archaic humans, modern humans generally have more delicate skeletons.  Their skulls are more rounded and their brow ridges generally protrude much less.  They rarely have the occipital buns found on the back of Neandertal skulls.  They also have relatively high foreheads, smaller faces, and pointed chins.    Neandertal     modern Homo sapiens    The first fossils of early modern humans to be identified were found in 1868 at the 27,000-23,000 year old Cro-Magnon rock shelter site near the village of Les Eyzies  in southwestern France.  They were subsequently named the Cro-Magnon  people.  They were very similar in appearance to modern Europeans.  Males were 5 feet 4 inches to 6 feet tall (1.6-1.8 m.)  That was 4-12 inches (10-31 cm.) taller than Neandertals.  Their skeletons and musculature generally were less massive than the Neandertals.  The Cro-Magnon had broad, small faces with pointed chins and high foreheads.  Their cranial capacities were up to 1590 cm3, which is relatively large even for people today.  Origins of Modern Humans Current data suggest that modern humans evolved from archaic humans primarily in East Africa.  A 195,000 year old fossil from the Omo 1 site in Ethiopia shows the beginnings of the skull changes that we associate with modern people, including a rounded skull case and possibly a projecting chin.  A 160,000 year old skull from the Herto site in the Middle Awash area of Ethiopia also seems to be at the early stages of this transition.  It had the rounded skull case but retained the large brow ridges of archaic humans.  Somewhat more advanced transitional forms have been found at Laetoli in Tanzania dating to about 120,000 years ago.  By 115,000 years ago, early modern humans had expanded their range to South Africa and into Southwest Asia (Israel) shortly after 100,000 years ago.  There is no reliable evidence of modern humans elsewhere in the Old World until 60,000-40,000 years ago, during a short temperate period in the midst of the last ice age. Important Early Modern Homo sapiens Sites Date of Fossil (years ago) East Africa:   Herto, Middle Awash160,000-154,000    Omo 1195,000  Laetoli120,000South Africa:   Border Cave115,000-90,000  Klasies River Mouth90,000Israel:   Skhul and Qafzeh92,000-90,000Australia:   Lake Mungo60,000-46,000Asia:   Annamite Mountains (Laos)63,000  Ordos (Mongolia)40,000-20,000 ?  Liujiang (China)139,000-111,000 ?  Zhirendong (China)100,000 ?  Zhoukoudian upper cave      (China)27,000Europe:   Peştera cu Oase (Romania)  36,000-34,000  Combe Capelle (France)35,000-30,000  Mladeč and Předmostí      (Czech Republic)35,000-25,000  Cro-Magnon (France)27,000-23,000Note: Artifactual evidence indicates that modern humans were in Europe by at least 40,000 and possibly as early as 46,000 years ago.  Dating of the earliest modern human fossils in Asia is less secure, but it is likely that they were present there by at least 60,000 years ago and possibly 100,000 years ago. It would seem from these dates that the location of initial modern Homo sapiens evolution and the direction of their dispersion from that area is obvious.  That is not the case.  Since the early 1980's, there have been two leading contradictory models that attempt to explain modern human evolution--the replacement model and the regional continuity model. The replacement model of Christopher Stringer and Peter Andrews proposes that modern humans evolved from archaic humans 200,000-150,000 years ago only in Africa and then some of them migrated into the rest of the Old World replacing all of the Neandertals and other late archaic humans beginning around 60,000-40,000 years ago or somewhat earlier.   If this interpretation of the fossil record is correct, all people today share a relatively modern African ancestry.  All other lines of humans that had descended from Homo erectus presumably became extinct.  From this view, the regional anatomical differences that we now see among humans are recent developments--evolving mostly in the last 40,000 years.  This hypothesis is also referred to as the "out of Africa", "Noah's ark", and "African replacement"model.  The regional continuity model (or multiregional evolution model) advocated by Milford Wolpoff proposes that modern humans evolved more or less simultaneouslyin all major regions of the Old World from local archaic humans.  For example, modern Chinese are seen as having evolved from Chinese archaic humans and ultimately from Chinese Homo erectus.  This would mean that the Chinese and some other peoples in the Old World have great antiquity in place.  Supporters of this model believe that the ultimate common ancestor of all modern people was an early Homo erectus in Africa who lived at least 1.8 million years ago.  It is further suggested that since then there was sufficient gene flow between Europe, Africa, and Asia to prevent long-term reproductive isolation and the subsequent evolution of distinct regional species.  It is argued that intermittent contact between people of these distant areas would have kept the human line a single species at any one time.  However, regional varieties, or subspecies, of humans are expected to have existed. Replacement Model Arguments There are two sources of evidence supporting the replacement model--the fossil record and DNA.  So far, the earliest finds of modern Homo sapiens skeletons come from Africa.  They date to nearly 200,000 years ago on that continent.  They appear in Southwest Asia around 100,000 years ago and elsewhere in the Old World by60,000-40,000 years ago.  Unless modern human remains dating to 200,000 years ago or earlier are found in Europe or East Asia, it would seem that the replacement model better explains the fossil data for those regions.  However, the DNA data supporting a replacement are more problematical. Beginning in the 1980's, Rebecca Cann, at the University of California, argued that the geographic region in which modern people have lived the longest should have the greatest amount of genetic diversity today.  Through comparisons of mitochondrial DNA sequences from living people throughout the world, she concluded that Africa has the greatest genetic diversity and, therefore, must be the homeland of all modern humans.  Assuming a specific, constant rate of mutation, she furtherconcluded that the common ancestor of modern people was a woman living about 200,000 years ago in Africa.  This supposed predecessor was dubbed "mitochondrial Eve" .  More recent genetic research at the University of Chicago and Yale University lends support to the replacement model.  It has shown thatvariations in the DNA of the Y chromosome and chromosome 12 also have the greatest diversity among Africans today.  John Relethford and other critics of the replacement model have pointed out that Africa could have had the greatest diversity in DNA simply because there were more people living there during the last several hundred thousand years.  This would leave open the possibility that Africa was not necessarily the only homeland of modern humans.  Critics of the genetic argument for the replacement model also point out that the rate of mutation used for the "molecular clock" is not necessarily constant, which makes the 200,000 year date for "mitochondrial Eve" unreliable.  The rate of inheritable mutations for a species or a population can vary due to a number of factors including generation time, the efficiency of DNA repair within cells, ambient temperature, and varying amounts of natural environmental mutagens.  In addition, some kinds of DNA molecules are known to be more subject to mutation than others, resulting in faster mutation rates.  This seems to be the case with the Y chromosome in human males. Further criticism of the genetic argument for the replacement model has come from geneticists at Oxford University.  They found that the human betaglobin gene is widely distributed in Asia but not in Africa.  Since this gene is thought to have originated more than 200,000 years ago, it undercuts the claim that an African population of modern Homo sapiens replaced East Asian archaic humans less than 60,000 years ago.   Regional Continuity Model Arguments Fossil evidence also is used to support the regional continuity model.  Its advocates claim that there has been a continuity of some anatomical traits from archaichumans to modern humans in Europe and Asia.  In other words, the Asian and European physical characteristics have antiquity in these regions going back over 100,000 years.  They point to the fact that many Europeans have relatively heavy brow ridges and a high angle of their noses reminiscent of Neandertals.  Similarly, it is claimed that some Chinese facial characteristics can be seen in an Asian archaic human fossil from Jinniushan dating to 200,000 years ago.  Like Homo erectus, East Asians today commonly have shovel-shaped incisors while Africans and Europeans rarely do.  This supports the contention of direct genetic links between Asian Homo erectus and modern Asians.  Alan Thorne of the Australian National University believes that Australian aborigines  share key skeletal and dental traits with pre-modern people who inhabited Indonesia at least 100,000 years ago.  The implication is that there was no replacement by modern humans from Africa60,000-40,000 years ago.  However, the evidence does not rule out gene flow from African populations to Europe and Asia at that time and before.  David Frayer, of the University of Kansas, believes that a number of European fossils from the last 50,000 years have characteristics that are the result of archaic and modern humans interbreeding.  Assimilation Model It is apparent that both the complete replacement and the regional continuity models have difficulty accounting for all of the fossil and genetic data.  What has emerged is a new hypothesis known as the assimilation (or partial replacement) model.  It takes a middle ground and incorporates both of the old models.  Gunter Brauer, of the University of Hamburg in Germany, proposes that the first modern humans did evolve in Africa, but when they migrated into other regions they did not simply replace existing human populations.  Rather, they interbred to a limited degree with late archaic humans resulting in hybrid populations.  In Europe, for instance, the first modern humans appear in the archaeological record rather suddenly around 45-40,000 years ago.  The abruptness of the appearance of these Cro-Magnon people could be explained by their migrating into the region from Africa via an eastern Mediterranean coastal route.  They apparently shared Europe with Neandertals for another 12,000 years or more.  During this long time period, it is argued that interbreeding occurred and that the partially hybridized predominantly Cro-Magnon population ultimately became modern Europeans.  In 2003, a discovery was made in a Romanian cave named Peştera cu Oase that supports this hypothesis.  It was a partial skeleton of a 15-16 year old male Homo sapiens who lived about 30,000 years ago or a bit earlier.  He had a mix of old and new anatomical features.  The skull had characteristics of both modern and archaic humans.  This could be explained as the result of interbreeding with Neandertals according to Erik Trinkaus of Washington University in St. Louis.  Alan Templeton, also of Washington University, reported that a computer-based analysis of 10 different human DNA sequences indicates that there has been interbreeding between people living in Asia, Europe, and Africa for at least 600,000 years.  This is consistent with the hypothesis that humans expanded again and again out of Africa and that these emigrants interbred with existing populations in Asia and Europe.  It is also possible that migrations were not only in one direction--people could have migrated into Africa as well.  If interbreeding occurred, it may have been a rare event.  This is supported by the fact that most skeletons of Neandertals and Cro-Magnon people do not show hybrid characteristics.   Becoming Human: Part 3--biological and cultural evolution of Homo heidelbergensis,         Neandertals, and modern humans.  This link takes you to another web page.  To         return here, you must click the "back" button on your browser program.           (length = 51 mins, 32 secs)  Svante Paabo: DNA Clues to Our Inner Neandertal--the latest genetic information on the         relationship between Neandertals and modern humans.  This link takes you to another         web page.  To return here, you must click the "back" button on your browser program.              (length = 17 mins, 2 secs)   It would be a mistake to assume that from the time modern Homo sapiens began migrating out of Africa that all people in that continent were modern humans.  The video below presents evidence of pockets of archaic humans surviving in West Africa until at least 13,000 years ago.   Skull points to a more complex human evolution in Africa--Chris Stringer describes a problematical         human skull from Nigeria.  This link takes you to a BBC website.  Select the video at the top of the         article.  To return here, you must click the "back" button on your browser program.         (length = 1 min, 45 secs)   Expansion Out of the Old World  Homo sapiens began migrating into the lower latitudes of East Asia by at least 70,000 years ago.  Along the way, some of them interbred with archaic humans, including both Neandertals and Denisovans.  Genetic markers from these archaic human populations are found in the gene pool of some Southern Chinese, New Guinean, and other Micronesian Island populations today.  Homo sapiens from Southeast Asia travelled to Australia by 46,000 years ago and possibly as early as 60,000 years ago.  Because Australia was not connected to Southeast Asia by land, it is probable that these first Australian Aborigines arrived by simple boats or rafts.  Modern humans reached the Japanese Islands by 30,000 years ago or somewhat earlier.  Around 35,000-30,000 years ago, Homo sapiens big game hunters moved into Northeastern Siberia.  Some of them migrated into North America via the Bering Plain, or Beringia , by 20,000-15,000 years ago.  Some Homo sapiens may have reached the Americas a bit earlier than this, but the evidence is still considered questionable by most paleoanthropologists.  The Bering Plainintercontinental land connection appeared between Siberia and Alaska as a result of sea levels dropping up to 450 feet (137 m.) during the final major cold period of the last ice age.  Until that time, all human evolution had occurred in the Old World. A consequence of human migrations into new regions of the world has been the extinction of many animal species indigenous to those areas.  By 11,000 years ago, human hunters in the New World apparently had played a part in the extermination of 135 species of mammals, including 3/4 of the larger ones (mammoths, mastodons, giant sloths, etc.).  Most of these extinctions apparently occurred within a few hundred years.  It is likely that the rapidly changing climate at the end of the last ice age was a contributing factor.  However, the addition of human hunters with spears to the existing top predators (mostly saber-toothed cats, lions, and dire-wolves) very likely disrupted the equilibrium between large herbivores and their predators.  As a consequence there was a major ecosystem disruption resulting in the rapid decline of both non-human carnivores and their prey.  Humans were very likely the trigger that set off this "trophic cascade".  Unlike most other major predators, people survived by switching their food quest to smaller animals and plants. Following the arrival of aboriginal people in Australia and Polynesians in New Zealand there were similar dramatic animal extinctions.  In both of these cases humans apparently were directly responsible for wiping out easily hunted species.  Large vulnerable marsupials were the main victims in Australia.  Within 5,000 years following the arrival of humans, approximately 90% of the marsupial species larger than a domesticated cat had become extinct there.  In New Zealand, it was mostly large flightless birds that were driven to extinction by human hunters following their arrival in the 10th-13th centuries A.D. It is sobering to realize that the rate of animal and plant extinction has once again accelerated dramatically.  During the last century and a half, the explosion in our global human population and our rapid technological development has allowed us to move into and over-exploit most areas of our planet including the oceans.  That exploitation has usually involved cutting down forests, changing the courses of rivers, pushing wild animals and plants out of farm and urban areas, polluting wetlands with pesticides and other man-made chemicals, and industrial-scale hunting of large land animals, whales, and fish.  During the early 19th century, there were at least 40,000,000 bison roaming the Great Plains of North America.  By the end of that century, there were only a few hundred remaining.  They had been hunted to near extinction with guns.  The same fate came to the African elephant and rhinoceros during the 20th century.  Likewise, commercial fishermen have depleted one species of fish after another during the last half century.  Governments have had to step in to try to stem the tide of these human population effects on other species.  However, they have been only marginally successful.  The World Conservation Union conservatively estimates that 7,266 animal species and 8,323 plant and lichen species are now at risk of extinction primarily due to human caused habitat degradation.  The endangered list includes 1/3 of all amphibian species, nearly 1/2 of the turtles and tortoises, 1/4 of the mammals, 1/5 of the sharks and rays, and 1/8 of the birds.  This list does not include the many millions of species that are still unknown to science.  It is likely that most of them will become extinct before they can be described and studied.   People Today Are we genetically different from our Homo sapiens ancestors who lived 10-20,000 years ago?  The answer is almost certainly yes.  In fact, it is very likely that the rate of evolution for our species has continuously accelerated since the end of the last ice age, roughly 10,000 years ago.  This is mostly due to the fact that our human population has explosively grown and moved into new kinds of environments, including cities, where we have been subject to new natural selection pressures.  For instance, our larger and denser populations have made it far easier for contagious diseases, such as tuberculosis, small pox, the plague, and influenza to rapidly spread through communities and wreak havoc.  This has exerted strong selection for individuals who were fortunate to have immune systems that allowed them to survive.  There also has been a marked change in diet for most people since the end of the last ice age.  It is now less varied and predominantly vegetarian around the globe with a heavy dependence on foods made from cereal grains.  It is likely that the human species has been able to adapt to these and other new environmental pressures because it has acquired a steadily greater genetic diversity.  A larger population naturally has more mutations adding variation to its gene pool simply because there are more people.  This happens even if the mutation rate per person remains the same.  However, the mutation rate may have actually increased because we have been exposed to new kinds of man-made environmental pollution that can cause additional mutations. It is not clear what all of the consequences of the environmental and behavioral changes for humans have been.  However, it does appear that the average human body size has become somewhat shorter over the last 10,000 years, and we have acquired widespread immunity to the more severe effects of some diseases such as measles and influenza. Finally, can we say what direction human evolution will take in the future?  This is a fascinating question to consider but impossible to answer because of innumerable unknown factors.  Though, it is certain that we will continue to evolve until we reach the point of extinction. NEWS:  Maanasa Raghavan et al. reported on November 20, 2013 (http://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/21/science/two-surprises-in-dna-of-boy-found-buried-in-siberia.html?pagewanted=1&_r=1 and http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature12736.html) that a 24,000 year old child skeleton from Mal’ta near Lake Baikal in eastern Siberia shared major DNA markers with Western Europeans and 1/4 of living Native American.  A 17,000 year old adult skeleton from Siberia also had genetic markers indicating European origin.  This indicates that ice age Homo sapiens from Europe migrated much farther beyond that continent than commonly believed.  It also implies that the New World native populations owe their ancestry not only to East Asians but to Europeans as well. 

Homo is our Genus Homo Sapiens is our Species. Now, the homo sapiens are divided into two species; the neanderthals and the homo sapiens sapiens.

Homo Sapiens Sapiens is our Sub Species - Modern humans are Homo Sapiens Sapiens.

Yes, about 30 years of anthropology & genetic testing. Homo Sapiens Sapiens is no longer a term in use. It was originally coined to distinguish between members of our species before and after about 40,000 years ago, when we saw a shift in cultural doodads. What happened 40,000 years ago was Homo Sapiens interbred with Neanderthals. That interbreeding resulted in everyone outside of Africa. When anthropologists realized they accidentally specified Africans as a primitive version of the species, Homo Sapiens Sapiens ceased to be a term use. The original thought was that at that time something changed in the species and we spread out in all directions, including back into Africa. Finding out that the people in Africa were not a result of that interbreeding made it clear the species had changed dramatically before that interbreeding and the 40,000 years ago demarcation was largely invented. We are all Homo Sapiens.

This was simply a mistake. Some had made the assumption that Neanderthals were the same species so they would homo sapiens. To distinguish, they referred to modern humans as homo sapiens sapiens. In other words, modern humans would be a sub-species. However, DNA analysis has shown this to be incorrect. Neanderthals were a different species so they are now called homo neanderthalensis and we are homo sapiens.

Nothing. Homo sapiens sapiens is an outdated term generated in the 1920s and 30s from the classification of Neanderthal. Neanderthals were classified — at that time — as part of the species Homo sapiens. But the obvious differences meant that taxonomists classified them as a “subspecies”. So there was Homo sapiens neanderthalis. Living people were classified as Homo sapiens sapiens as a separate “subspecies”. Over the intervening time more data has resulted in 2 things: 1) Neanderthals are now classified as a separate species — Homo neanderthal. Thus there is no longer any need for a “subpecies” classification of Homo sapiens sapiens. 2) taxonomists began to abandon the use of the classification “subspecies”

Homo sapiens is our species.  Our subspecies is H. s. sapiens.  Neanderthal's subspecies is H. s. neanderthalensis (of which we, as a subspecies, carry 20% of the genome).  So he's Homo sapiens too.  So is Homo s. idatu.  (And some taxonomists include  H. s. rhodesiensis as part of the species.)????

So it's of interest to anyone interested in where "you" _(they), come from.

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